State and Society up to 1000 CE

Before 1000 CE, society and state in India developed gradually from simple kin-based groups into more organised political and social systems. In the early Vedic period, society was organised around jana, meaning clans or groups of people connected by kinship. The kula, or family, was the basic unit of society. Several families formed a grāma, and larger groups formed a jana. The rājā acted mainly as a clan chief who protected the people and led them during warfare. Over time, these kin-based groups became connected with land and territory. This led to the rise of janapadas and later mahājanapadas. Society also developed institutions such as varṇa, jāti, gotra, āśhrama, and puruṣhārtha. The state became more organised with rulers, ministers, officers, army, treasury, taxation, and local administration.

Thus, before 1000 CE, Indian society and state organised themselves through family, clan, village, assemblies, kingdoms, republics, empires, social groups, and ethical principles like dharma.

States and societies emerged as people began to settle permanently, practise agriculture, use iron tools, produce surplus food, and develop trade. In the beginning, communities were organised as janas, or clans. Later, they became connected to particular territories, forming janapadas. Between about 600 BCE and 300 BCE, larger political units called mahājanapadas emerged. Among these, Magadha became very powerful because of its fertile land, strategic location, resources, and strong rulers. This later led to the rise of the Mauryan Empire. Political and social developments also spread to southern India. Early kingdoms such as the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas developed in Tamilakam. Later, regional powers such as the Satavāhanas, Pallavas, Chālukyas, Gurjara- Pratihāras, Pālas, Rāṣhṭrakūṭas, and Cholas ruled different parts of India.

The spread of states and societies was supported by agriculture, irrigation, trade routes, ports, guilds, religious movements, education, and cultural exchanges.

The idea of dharma helped create unity in social values because it taught people to follow duty, righteousness, moral conduct, justice, and responsibility. Dharma guided the behaviour of rulers, officers, families, students, and society as a whole. It connected politics with ethics and reminded rulers that they should protect people and work for public welfare. The idea of chakravarti samrāṭ referred to a universal ruler whose authority extended over a large territory. This idea encouraged rulers to think beyond small kingdoms and imagine the Indian subcontinent as one larger political space. Terms such as Jambudvīpa, Bhāratavarṣha, Prithivi, Aśhvamedha yajña, Rājasūya yajña, and chakravarti kśhetra reflected the idea of wider political unity. Even if India was ruled by many kingdoms at different times, these ideas created a shared imagination of the subcontinent as one cultural and political region.

Thus, dharma created unity in values, while the idea of chakravarti samrāṭ created unity in political imagination.

Different groups developed as society became more complex. In early Vedic society, people were identified by family, clan, region, language, gotra, occupation, and customs. Later, the ideas of varṇa and jāti developed. The four varṇas were Brāhmaṇas, Kṣhatriyas, Vaiśhyas, and Śhūdras. Over time, many jātis developed due to occupation, migration, intermarriage, regional differences, and endogamy. Occupational groups such as farmers, traders, artisans, weavers, fishermen, salt-makers, warriors, and merchants became important. Administrative groups also took shape. The king was assisted by ministers, treasurers, tax collectors, legal advisors, army commanders, district officers, village headmen, and local assemblies.

These groups came together culturally through trade, religious practices, education, festivals, literature, temples, guilds, Bhakti traditions, and shared ideas of dharma. Even though people belonged to different regions and occupations, cultural practices helped connect them.

The event I would like to explore further is the foundation of the Mauryan Empire by Chandragupta Maurya.

Chandragupta Maurya founded the Mauryan Empire. This empire became one of the largest and most powerful empires in early Indian history. It brought many regions under one political authority and developed a strong system of administration.

The Mauryan Empire was founded around 321 BCE.

This event matters because the Mauryan Empire created a highly organised system of governance. It had central administration, provinces, officers, taxation, army, public works, and law and order. Under later rulers like Aśhoka, the empire also promoted dhamma, moral governance, welfare, and peace. The Mauryan Empire is important because it shows how early Indian states became large and well-administered empires.

The use of the name Bharata in the Ṛig Veda tells us that early communities identified themselves through their jana, or clan. The people were known by the name of the clan or ruling family to which they belonged. The term Bharata jana means the people ruled by the family of the Bharatas. This shows that early identity was based more on kinship, clan, and common ancestry than on fixed territorial boundaries. It also tells us that rulers and people were closely connected. The ruler was not separate from the community. He was the leader or protector of the jana. Thus, early communities identified themselves through both their people and their rulers.

Yes, the roles of the rājā and the assemblies in Vedic times suggest a similar principle, although they were not exactly like modern democracy. In Vedic society, the rājā was the leader or clan chief, but he did not rule completely alone. Assemblies such as the sabhā, samiti, and vidhata played important roles in political life. The sabhā had judicial functions, the samiti discussed policy and political matters, and the vidhata was a popular gathering of the community.

These assemblies helped in discussion, advice, and decision-making. This means that the power of the rājā was not completely unlimited. Important members of society had a role in governance. So, we can say that early Indian political systems showed the idea of consultation, participation, and checking the power of rulers. However, it was different from modern democracy because all people may not have had equal participation like citizens do today.

The crucial factors behind this change were iron technology, agricultural expansion, fertile land, growth of settlements, and increasing trade.

The use of iron implements helped people clear forests and cultivate more land. Iron tools were stronger than earlier tools, so farming became easier and more productive. The Ganga plains were fertile and suitable for growing crops, especially paddy. As agriculture expanded, grain production increased. This created food surplus, which supported larger populations and bigger settlements. More settlements developed in the Ganga region because people could live permanently and produce enough food. The appearance of PGW pottery and later NBPW pottery shows that material culture became more advanced. Trade, crafts, and social organisation also improved.

Therefore, the main reasons for this change were: 1. Use of iron tools

Expansion of agriculture

Fertile Ganga plains

Growth of paddy cultivation

Increase in food production

Growth of settlements and trade

Development of richer material culture

It was important for rulers to protect people and ensure justice because the stability of the kingdom depended on the safety and trust of the subjects. If people were not protected from enemies, crimes, robbery, injustice, and disorder, society would become weak and unstable. The king was expected to protect people from external attacks and internal disorder. He also had to administer justice fairly and punish wrongdoers. This helped maintain peace, law and order, and public confidence in the ruler.

These descriptions tell us that governance during that period was not only about power. It was also about duty, justice, responsibility, and welfare. The relationship between ruler and subjects was based on mutual responsibility: the subjects accepted the king’s authority, and the king was expected to protect them and rule according to dharma. Thus, a good king was seen as one who worked for the welfare, protection, and justice of his people.

Different rulers may have chosen to record their inscriptions on the same stone because that stone was already important, visible, and respected by people. For example, the Junagadh Rock Inscription contains records of rulers from different dynasties, including the Mauryas, Western Satraps, and Guptas. By writing on the same stone, later rulers could connect themselves with earlier powerful rulers and show continuity. There may have been several reasons: 1. Public visibility The stone may have been located at an important public place where many people could see it.

2. Political prestige Writing on the same stone as earlier rulers helped later rulers show their importance and authority. 3. Continuity of rule It showed that different rulers continued public works and administration in the same region. 4. Durability Stone lasted for a long time, so inscriptions could preserve the ruler’s achievements for future generations. 5. Public memory People already knew the place, so new inscriptions there would be noticed and remembered. Thus, using the same stone helped rulers connect their achievements with history, authority, and public welfare.

Dividing a kingdom into provinces, districts, and villages helped rulers manage large empires more efficiently. A large empire could not be governed directly from the capital all the time. Smaller administrative divisions made governance easier. This system helped rulers in many ways: 1. Better administration Officers could manage different regions and report to the king. 2. Easier tax collection Revenue could be collected from villages, districts, and provinces in an organised way.

3. Maintenance of law and order Local officers could solve problems quickly. 4. Better communication Orders from the king could reach distant areas through provincial and district officers. 5. Local management Village assemblies could manage local affairs such as irrigation, roads, land records, and disputes. This system is similar to governance in India today. Today, India is divided into states, districts, tehsils or blocks, and villages. We also have local self-government institutions like Panchayats and Municipalities. Thus, the ancient administrative divisions were similar in purpose to modern divisions because both help in better governance, local administration, revenue collection, and public welfare.

a. What does the source tell us? — Evidence The verse tells us that in one family, the speaker is a poet, the father is a physician, and the mother is a grinder of corn. This gives direct evidence that different members of the same family could follow different occupations.

We can understand that occupations in early Vedic society were not always fixed by birth. There was flexibility in work. A person’s occupation could be different from that of their parents. The verse also shows that society had many kinds of occupations, and people worked to earn wealth and support their families.

This verse does not tell us everything about Vedic society. It gives only one example from one family. It does not tell us whether all families had the same flexibility. It also does not explain the full social status of these occupations or how common such occupational freedom was. So, historians must use this source carefully and compare it with other sources.

The occupations mentioned in the verse are:

1. Poet 2. Physician 3. Grinder of corn
2. The speaker says, “I am a poet; my father is a physician; my mother is a grinder of corn.”

This indicates that occupations in Vedic society could be flexible. Members of the same family could follow different occupations. It suggests that occupation was not always strictly hereditary or fixed by birth during the early Vedic period.

The verse challenges the idea that occupation was fixed by birth because it shows three members of the same family doing different kinds of work. The speaker is a poet, the father is a physician, and the mother is a grinder of corn. If occupation had been completely fixed by birth, then all family members would have followed the same occupation. But this verse shows occupational diversity within one family. Therefore, it suggests that early Vedic society had occupational flexibility and that social roles were not always rigid.

In contemporary society, we find many different occupations, such as: Teachers, doctors, engineers, farmers, shopkeepers, drivers, lawyers, police officers, soldiers, artists, writers, YouTubers, software developers, nurses, electricians, mechanics, carpenters, bankers, government officers, traders, factory workers, and entrepreneurs. Today, people usually choose occupations based on education, skill, interest, opportunity, and training.

Final Discussion Answer: All groups may not interpret the source in the same way. Some may focus on occupational freedom, while others may focus on family life, economic needs, or social roles. This tells us that historians use evidence carefully. A single source can give important clues, but it may have different interpretations. Historians compare many sources before reaching a conclusion about the past.

Modern school life and gurukula life are different in many ways, but both aim to educate students and prepare them for life. In a gurukula, students lived with the teacher, or guru, often in the teacher’s home or āśhrama. Their daily life included study, discipline, service to the guru, yoga, meditation, physical training, and moral learning. They studied subjects such as Vedas, grammar, philosophy, ethics, mathematics, science, medicine, astronomy, music, dance, painting, and martial arts. The relationship between teacher and student was very close and respectful. In modern schools, students usually live at home and attend school during fixed hours. They study subjects such as languages, mathematics, science, social science, computers, arts, and physical education. Teachers guide students, but the relationship is usually more formal than in a gurukula.

Advantages of the Gurukula System

The gurukula system gave students discipline, moral values, close guidance from the teacher, practical skills, and simple living. It focused on complete development of character, body, mind, and spirit.

Challenges of the Gurukula System

Students had to live away from home and follow a very disciplined routine. Access to education may not have been equal for everyone in all periods and regions.

Advantages of Modern School System

Modern schools provide access to many subjects, books, technology, laboratories, sports, and examinations. Students can learn modern skills and prepare for different careers.

Challenges of Modern School System

Modern schools sometimes focus too much on exams and marks. Students may face stress, competition, and less personal attention from teachers.

Conclusion

Both systems have strengths. The gurukula system focused on values and discipline, while modern schools focus on wide knowledge, skills, and career preparation. A good education system should combine both knowledge and moral values.

The Cholas were known for their excellent irrigation systems. They built canals, lakes, tanks, and connecting channels to store and distribute water for agriculture. The Grand Anicut, also called Kallanai, was built by Karikala Chola across the Kaveri River. It helped control and distribute river water to agricultural fields.

This irrigation structure was important because it:

1. Supported agriculture It provided water to fields and helped farmers grow crops.
2. Increased food production Regular water supply improved crop yield.
3. Encouraged settlements When farming improved, more people settled in the region.
4. Strengthened the economy Agriculture was a major source of revenue for the state.
5. Shows engineering skill The Grand Anicut is an example of advanced water management in early India.
6. The fact that it is still in use today shows the lasting importance of Chola irrigation works.

Irrigational structures like dams, canals, lakes, tanks, and reservoirs were considered very important because agriculture depended heavily on water. Since agriculture was the backbone of the economy, irrigation directly affected food production, revenue, and the welfare of people. Their construction was recorded in inscriptions for several reasons: 1. Public welfare Dams and canals benefited farmers and ordinary people by providing water for crops. 2. Economic importance Better irrigation increased agricultural production and helped the state collect more revenue.

3. Achievement of rulers Rulers wanted people to remember their contribution to public works. 4. Proof of good governance Building irrigation structures showed that the ruler cared about people’s needs. 5. Long-lasting importance Such works served society for many generations, so recording them preserved their history. Thus, inscriptions about irrigation show that rulers considered water management, agriculture, and public welfare as important duties of governance.

During the Vedic period, political organisation was mainly based on kinship. People lived in groups called janas, or clans. The leader was called the rājā, who acted mainly as a clan chief. His main duties were to protect the people and lead them in war. He was supported by assemblies such as the sabhā, samiti, and vidhata. With time, clans became connected with specific territories. This led to the rise of janapadas, meaning territories where people settled. Later, larger political units called mahājanapadas emerged. Among them, Magadha became very powerful and later gave rise to the Mauryan Empire. By the time of large empires such as the Mauryas and Guptas, political organisation had become much more complex. The king was supported by ministers, officers, army, treasury, tax collectors, and local administrators.

The administrative system of early Indian states was organised in layers. Large empires were divided into provinces, provinces into districts, districts into groups of villages, and finally into villages. Officers were appointed at different levels to collect taxes, maintain law and order, administer justice, and manage public works. Thus, political organisation changed from simple clan-based rule to large territorial empires with organised administration.

The king was the head of the state. His main duties were to protect the people, maintain law and order, administer justice, collect revenue, defend the kingdom, and work for public welfare. Texts such as the Mahābhārata and Arthaśhāstra describe the king as a ruler who should act according to dharma. He was expected to judge fairly, protect both the strong and the weak, and save the country from dangers. The king was helped by many important officers. The mantri-pariṣhad, or council of ministers, advised the king. Important officers included the treasurer, chief tax collector, chief legal advisor, commander-in-chief, district governors, and village headmen.

Large territories were governed by dividing them into smaller administrative units such as provinces, districts, towns, groups of villages, and villages. This made administration easier. Local officers managed revenue collection, justice, trade, irrigation, and law and order. Village assemblies also played an important role in managing local affairs. Thus, large territories were governed through a combination of central authority, trained officers, local administration, taxation, army, and village-level institutions.

The most important features of the state and society in India before 1000 CE were:

• First, political organisation developed from janas to janapadas, mahājanapadas, kingdoms, republics, and large empires.
• Second, kings were expected to follow dharma, protect people, ensure justice, and work for public welfare.
• Third, administration became organised through provinces, districts, villages, ministers, officers, taxation, army, and local assemblies.
• Fourth, society was organised through institutions such as kula, grāma, jana, varṇa, jāti, gotra, āśhrama, and puruṣhārtha.
• Fifth, the economy was mainly based on agriculture, supported by irrigation, trade routes, ports, coins, and guilds.

Sixth, education was considered a means of developing knowledge, discipline, moral values, and practical skills. Seventh, religious life developed from Vedic rituals to devotional traditions such as Bhakti. Thus, early Indian state and society were marked by political organisation, ethical governance, social institutions, agricultural economy, trade, education, religion, and cultural continuity.

Early texts such as the Ṛig Veda, Arthaśhāstra, and Mahābhārata reveal many important things about political and social life. The Ṛig Veda tells us about early Vedic society. It mentions janas, or clans, and shows that people were connected through kinship. It also refers to the rājā and assemblies such as sabhā, samiti, and vidhata. It gives us information about early religious practices, social life, occupations, and family structure. The Arthaśhāstra gives detailed information about statecraft, administration, taxation, economy, law, trade, army, and duties of the king. It explains that a state needed seven parts: king, ministers, territory, forts, treasury, army, and allies.

The Mahābhārata, especially the Śhānti Parva, discusses the duties of rulers. It says that a king should protect people, ensure justice, follow ethical conduct, and work for the welfare of society. Together, these texts show that early Indian political and social life was guided by kinship, administration, justice, dharma, duties, social roles, and moral values.

From early Indian society, we learn that varṇa originally referred to broad social categories based mainly on functions and duties. The four varṇas were Brāhmaṇas, Kṣhatriyas, Vaiśhyas, and Śhūdras. Early Vedic society was not always rigid. A verse from the Ṛig Veda mentions a family in which one person was a poet, the father was a physician, and the mother was a grinder of corn. This shows that occupations were not always fixed by birth. Over time, however, social roles became less flexible, and different jātis developed. The chapter also shows that women had an important role in early Indian society. During the Vedic period, women participated in learning, rituals, social gatherings, and intellectual life. Some hymns of the Ṛig Veda are traditionally attributed to women sages such as Apālā, Viśhvavārā, Ghoṣhā, and Lopāmudrā.

Women also contributed to household management, agriculture, crafts, religious practices, literature, and governance. Examples include Prabhāvatī Gupta, who ruled as a regent, and women poets such as Avvaiyar in Sangam literature. Thus, early Indian society shows both social flexibility and the significant contribution of women in many areas of life.

In the Vedic period, the rājā was the leader or clan chief, but his power was not completely unlimited. Assemblies like the sabhā and samiti played an important role in political life. The sabhā was a smaller body that mainly performed judicial functions. It included selected important members of society. The samiti was a larger assembly that discussed political matters and policy decisions. It represented a wider section of the people. These assemblies helped in discussion, advice, decision-making, and checking the power of the rājā. This means that the rājā had to consider the views of important groups and could not act completely on his own.

In modern times, institutions such as the Parliament, State Legislatures, Judiciary, Panchayats, Municipalities, and Constitution perform similar functions. They limit the power of elected leaders and ensure that governance is carried out according to laws and people’s interests. Thus, the sabhā and samiti show an early idea of consultation, participation, and control over political authority.

Varṇa refers to the four broad social categories in early Indian society. These were Brāhmaṇas, Kṣhatriyas, Vaiśhyas, and Śhūdras. These categories were originally connected with functions and duties. Jāti refers to smaller social groups based on factors such as occupation, region, community, marriage practices, and social customs. The main difference between varṇa and jāti is that varṇa was a broad fourfold classification, while jāti included many smaller groups. The number of varṇas was fixed at four, but the number of jātis kept increasing over time. Several factors contributed to the formation of various jātis : 1. Different occupations People engaged in different crafts, trades, and professions.

2. Migration Communities moving to new areas formed separate identities. 3. Endogamy Many groups began marrying within their own community.

4. Regional differences People living in different regions developed different customs and identities.

Education in early India emphasised both knowledge and moral values because learning was seen as preparation for life, not just for earning a livelihood. Students studied subjects such as Vedas, grammar, logic, philosophy, ethics, mathematics, science, medicine, astronomy, music, dance, painting, physical education, and martial arts. Along with this, they were taught values such as truth, patience, humility, discipline, self-control, respect for teachers, service, and dharma. This was important because knowledge without moral values could be misused. Moral values helped students become responsible individuals who could serve their family, society, and state.

This benefited society in many ways. It created people who were educated, disciplined, ethical, responsible, and respectful. It also helped maintain social harmony, good conduct, and respect for duties. Thus, early Indian education aimed at the complete development of the individual, including the body, mind, character, and spirit.

The major trade routes of early India helped connect different regions of the Indian subcontinent. Important routes such as Dakṣhiṇāpatha and Uttarāpatha connected northern, central, southern, and coastal regions. These routes helped people exchange goods such as textiles, metals, minerals, gems, pearls, salt, spices, agricultural products, and craft items. Traders, merchants, artisans, monks, and travellers moved along these routes. Trade routes also helped in the spread of skills and technologies. Artisans and craftspersons could learn new techniques from other regions. They also helped in the spread of beliefs and religious ideas. Buddhist monks, Jain teachers, and Bhakti saints travelled and shared their teachings. Temples, monasteries, and learning centres also became connected through these routes.

Cultural practices such as languages, literature, art, music, food habits, festivals, and customs also spread through trade networks. Thus, trade routes were not only used for buying and selling goods. They also helped in the exchange of ideas, knowledge, beliefs, skills, and culture.

Ruling a large empire without modern communication systems had both advantages and challenges. The advantages were that a large empire had access to more land, resources, population, army, taxes, trade routes, and wealth. It could build roads, irrigation systems, forts, cities, and public works. A large empire could also provide protection to trade and maintain order over a wide region. However, there were many challenges. Communication was slow because there were no telephones, internet, railways, or modern transport. Messages had to be sent through messengers, horses, roads, or officials. It took time for the king’s orders to reach distant provinces.

Other challenges included controlling distant regions, collecting taxes, preventing rebellions, maintaining law and order, protecting borders, supervising officers, and managing different languages, customs, and communities. To solve these problems, rulers divided empires into provinces, districts, towns, and villages. They appointed officers and allowed some local institutions to manage local affairs. Thus, ruling a large empire was useful but difficult without modern communication systems.

Texts composed by scholars and advisors of the king are very useful, but relying only on them has some limitations. First, such texts may describe ideal governance, not always the actual situation. They may tell us how a king should rule, but not always how kings really ruled. Second, these texts may reflect the views of educated elites, scholars, or royal advisors. They may not fully represent the views of common people, farmers, artisans, women, traders, or labourers. Third, some texts may praise kings and present them in a positive way. They may ignore failures, conflicts, injustice, or problems faced by ordinary people.

Fourth, these texts may focus more on large kingdoms and rulers, while giving less information about everyday life in villages and local communities. Therefore, historians should not depend only on such texts. They should also study inscriptions, coins, archaeological remains, literature, foreign accounts, pottery, tools, buildings, and local records to understand the past more accurately.

This source tells us that guilds played an important economic role in early India. They were not only associations of artisans and traders but also worked as financial institutions. The source says that money was deposited with weavers’ guilds, and these guilds paid regular interest on the deposited amount. The interest was used to support the members of the Saṁgha living in the cave. This shows that guilds acted like banks, trustees, and credit institutions. They could safely keep money, invest it, and generate income through interest.

Guilds were trusted with money deposits because they were organised and respected institutions. They had their own rules, leaders, and systems of discipline. Guilds were economically strong because their members were skilled artisans, traders, or merchants. They regularly handled production, trade, money, and goods. They also maintained professional standards and were known for reliability. Since guilds could pay fixed interest on deposits, people trusted them to manage money safely. This is why donations and endowments were deposited with guilds for long-term use.

The donor was Uṣhavadāta, son of Dinika and son-in-law of king Nahapāna. The donees were the members of the Saṁgha living in the cave. The cave was donated to the Saṁgha generally, and the interest from the deposited money was meant for the monks of any sect and any origin dwelling in the cave. The weavers’ guilds at Govadhana received the deposited money for investment, but the final benefit was for the Saṁgha.

Prepare a short presentation or poster on one of the following

Prepare a short presentation or poster on one of the following

Prepare a short presentation or poster on one of the following

Prepare a short presentation or poster on one of the following

Activity 14 – Presentation and poster material

Life in Vedic society: People lived in groups called janas or clans. The kula, or family, was the basic unit; several families formed a grama, and the leader of the jana was called the raja. The raja protected people and was assisted by the sabha, samiti and vidhata. People practised agriculture, cattle rearing and crafts. Society was not completely rigid in the early period. Religion was closely connected with nature and yajnas were important. Women participated in learning, rituals and social gatherings; women sages included Lopamudra, Ghosha, Vishvavara, Apala and Vak Ambhrini.

Early education system – Gurukula: Students lived with the guru or acharya, followed a disciplined life, served the teacher, practised self-control and learnt moral values. Subjects included the Vedas, grammar, logic, philosophy, ethics, mathematics, science, medicine, astronomy, music, dance, painting, physical education and martial arts. The guru–shishya relationship was close and respectful. Education aimed to develop knowledge, discipline, humility, truthfulness, good character and responsibility.

Trade and guilds in early India: Uttarapatha in the north and Dakshinapatha in the south connected regions. Textiles, metals, minerals, gems, pearls, salt, spices and agricultural products moved along the routes; important ports included Muziris, Kaveripattinam, Arikamedu and Masulipatnam. Trade spread skills, beliefs, ideas, languages and cultural practices. Guilds or shrenis regulated quality and prices, protected artisans and consumers, settled disputes and sometimes acted as banks. The Nashik cave inscription records money deposited with weavers’ guilds that paid interest.

Role of women in early Indian society: Women participated in learning, rituals, social gatherings and intellectual life. Rig Vedic hymns are attributed to women sages such as Apala, Vishvavara, Ghosha and Lopamudra; goddesses such as Usha and Aditi were respected. Women contributed to household life, agriculture, crafts, religious practices and cultural activities. In later periods, Prabhavati Gupta ruled as regent and issued land grants; women in Sangam society worked in planting, weeding, husking, winnowing paddy, cattle rearing, spinning, fishing, salt production and garland selling, while poets such as Avvaiyar and Vennikkuyattiyar contributed to literature. In the Chola period, royal women such as Sembiyan Mahadevi supported temples and religious institutions.