Early Humans and Beginning of Civilisation

Before the beginning of civilisation, humans lived mainly as hunter-gatherers. They hunted animals, caught fish, collected fruits, roots, tubers, seeds, and wild grains. They did not live in permanent houses in the beginning. Many early humans lived in caves, rock shelters, open camps, and temporary settlements. They made stone tools such as handaxes, cleavers, scrapers, borers, points, blades, and microliths. These tools helped them cut meat, scrape animal skin, dig roots, break bones, hunt animals, and make other useful objects. Gradually, humans learned farming, domestication of animals, pottery making, and village life, which later led to civilisation.

Before writing was invented, humans communicated through spoken sounds, gestures, signs, symbols, body movements, cave paintings, engravings, and symbolic objects. Cave paintings and rock art show that early humans could express ideas, events, animals, hunting scenes, and social life through pictures. They also used pigments, decorated their bodies, made beads of stone, bone, and shell, and engraved symbols on bones and shells. This shows that humans had developed symbolic communication even before proper writing began.

Archaeology helps us understand the past by studying the material remains left behind by people. Since early humans did not leave written records, archaeologists study tools, bones, fossils, pottery, cave paintings, beads, houses, seals, burial remains, and ancient settlements. These remains help us understand how early humans lived, what food they ate, what tools they used, how they hunted, how they made shelters, and how their society changed over time. Archaeologists also recreate and use similar tools to understand how ancient people made and used them.

Early civilisations interacted mainly through trade, travel, exchange of goods, and cultural contact. For example, the Harappan civilisation had contacts with Mesopotamia. Mesopotamian records mention trade with Meluhha, which is generally identified with the Sindhu– Sarasvatī or Harappan Civilisation. The Harappans traded items such as semi-precious stone beads, ivory, timber, gold dust, and probably copper. Trade routes connected regions like Meluhha, Dilmun, and Magan, showing that ancient civilisations were not isolated but connected through exchange networks.

The Harappan script has not yet been deciphered because most of the writings found are very short. They are usually seen on seals, pottery, tablets, and other objects. These short inscriptions do not provide enough material to understand the full language. Another reason is that no bilingual inscription has been found so far. A bilingual inscription means the same text written in two scripts or languages. For example, the Egyptian script was deciphered with the help of the Rosetta Stone, which had Greek along with Egyptian writing. But no such key has been found for the Harappan script.

The language behind the Harappan script is also uncertain. Scholars are not fully sure whether it was related to Dravidian, Indo-Aryan, Munda, or some other language family. Because of this, different scholars have suggested different readings, but none has been universally accepted. Efforts made to decipher the Harappan script include: Researchers have compared Harappan signs with other ancient scripts. They have studied the order and repetition of signs. They have used computer analysis and statistical methods. They have compared symbols found on seals, pottery, and other objects. They are also looking for a possible bilingual inscription that may help decode the script.

So, the Harappan script remains one of the biggest unsolved questions of ancient Indian history.

Early humans probably left Africa because of climate change, search for food, population pressure, and curiosity to explore new areas. As the climate and environment changed, some areas may have become dry or difficult to live in. Early humans followed animals for hunting and moved towards places where food and water were available. They may also have migrated because their population increased and they needed more space and resources. The chapter tells us that Homo erectus was one of the first human ancestors to move out of Africa. Later, Homo sapiens also migrated from Africa and gradually spread across the world. This migration helped humans occupy Asia, Europe, Australia, and later the Americas.

Yes, we can notice clear changes in the skulls of different human ancestors. The skulls gradually became larger and more rounded. This shows an increase in brain size over time. Earlier ancestors like Homo habilis had smaller skulls and more projecting jaws. Later ancestors like Homo erectus and Neanderthals had bigger skulls. Finally, Homo sapiens developed a more rounded skull, a higher forehead, a smaller jaw, and a flatter face.

Yes, there is a gradual straightening of the face. In earlier human ancestors, the face was more forward-projecting, with strong jaws and heavy brow ridges. Over time, the face became flatter and more balanced. In Homo sapiens, the forehead is higher, the jaw is smaller, and the face is straighter. This shows the process of human biological evolution from earlier human-like ancestors to modern humans.

The shift to farming during the Neolithic period is called a revolution because it completely changed human life. Earlier, humans were hunter-gatherers who moved from place to place in search of food. But after the beginning of farming, humans started producing their own food. This led to many big changes: People began to live in permanent villages. They started domesticating animals. They grew crops and stored food. They made polished stone tools. They developed pottery for cooking and storage. They began to produce surplus food. Surplus food helped in the growth of trade, crafts, settlements, and later cities. Thus, farming changed human life socially, economically, and culturally. That is why it is called the Neolithic Revolution, not just a simple change.

The chart shows the gradual transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture. It mentions livestock, which means domesticated animals. The animals associated with early farming communities included cattle, sheep, goats, and other useful animals. In the Indian subcontinent, the chapter especially mentions sheep, goats, and Indian cattle, particularly the zebu humped bull, at Mehrgarh. The types of human habitats included settled villages, mud-brick houses, and agricultural landscapes. People began to live in permanent settlements instead of constantly moving from place to place.

The objects used included stone tools, pottery, storage containers, agricultural tools, and objects related to animal rearing and farming. Yes, many of these are still used today in modified forms. Farmers still use domesticated animals, grow crops, live in settled villages, store grains, and use pottery or similar storage vessels in some rural areas. Agriculture, livestock rearing, and village life continue to be important even today.

If the Harappans had not followed a standard system of weights and measurements, long-distance trade would have become very difficult. Standard weights helped traders measure goods fairly. If every region used different weights, there would be confusion, cheating, disputes, and mistrust among traders. Buyers and sellers would not know whether they were receiving the correct quantity of goods. The Harappans used cubical stone weights and followed a systematic pattern, including binary multiples like 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 for smaller units and multiples of ten for larger units. This made trade more organised and reliable.

Standard weights also helped in interregional trade, craft production, storage, taxation, and exchange of goods. Without such a system, Harappan trade with distant regions, including Mesopotamia, would have been less efficient and less trustworthy.

Rivers were very important in the growth of early civilisations because they provided water, fertile soil, food, transport, and irrigation. Most early civilisations developed near rivers: Sindhu– Sarasvatī Civilisation developed near the Sindhu and Sarasvatī rivers. Mesopotamian Civilisation developed near the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Egyptian Civilisation developed near the Nile River. Chinese Civilisation developed near the Huang He and Yangtze rivers. Rivers deposited fertile soil, which helped agriculture. They provided water for crops, animals, and people. They also helped in fishing and transport. River routes made trade easier.

However, rivers also created challenges such as floods. So people had to build canals, dams, reservoirs, drainage systems, and water management structures. This need for cooperation helped in the growth of administration and organised society.

West Asia is a geographical region in the western part of Asia. Different books and organisations may define it slightly differently. In the context of this chapter, Mesopotamia was located in West Asia, mainly in the region of present-day Iraq and Kuwait, with some parts of Turkey and southwestern Iran. According to the United Nations statistical grouping, Western Asia includes: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Cyprus, Georgia, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, State of Palestine, Syrian Arab Republic, Türkiye, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. The UN also notes that these groupings are used for statistical convenience.

Yes, there are some similarities between temples in India and the temples of the Sumerian civilisation. In the Sumerian civilisation, every city had a grand temple called a ziggurat. It was not only a place of worship but also an important centre of economic and social life. Activities like agriculture, trade, storage of goods, and transport were connected with temple authority. Priests and priestesses had high status in society. Similarly, many temples in India also became centres of religious, cultural, social, and economic activities. People gathered there for worship, festivals, fairs, music, dance, education, charity, and community meetings. Around many large temples, markets and craft activities also developed.

So, both in India and Sumer, temples were not only religious places. They also played an important role in society, economy, culture, and administration.

Yes, our understanding of a civilisation changes greatly when its script is deciphered. When a script is deciphered, historians can read the actual words written by the people of that civilisation. This helps us know about their language, names, rulers, laws, religion, trade, occupations, stories, beliefs, and daily life. For example, because cuneiform has been deciphered, we know many things about Mesopotamia. Cuneiform tablets tell us about their myths, epics, hymns, law codes, education, farming records, craft activities, and trade. But the Harappan script has not yet been deciphered. So, we mainly depend on archaeological remains such as seals, pottery, buildings, tools, weights, and city planning. Because of this, we still do not clearly know the Harappan language, names of rulers, exact religious beliefs, laws, or political system.

Therefore, a deciphered script makes our knowledge clearer, deeper, and more accurate, while an undeciphered script leaves many questions unanswered.

But the Harappan script has not yet been deciphered. So, we mainly depend on archaeological remains such as seals, pottery, buildings, tools, weights, and city planning. Because of this, we still do not clearly know the Harappan language, names of rulers, exact religious beliefs, laws, or political system. Therefore, a deciphered script makes our knowledge clearer, deeper, and more accurate, while an undeciphered script leaves many questions unanswered.

The Epic of Gilgamesh is one of the earliest known written stories from Mesopotamia. It tells the story of King Gilgamesh and deals with themes like friendship, courage, death, and the search for immortality. The chapter also mentions that Mesopotamian cuneiform tablets preserve myths, epics, hymns, law codes, and educational texts. Some other early stories that students can share in class are: 1. Atrahasis This is an ancient Mesopotamian flood story. It tells how humans survived a great flood with divine warning. 2. Enuma Elish This is a Babylonian creation story. It explains how the world and gods were created according to Babylonian belief.

3. The Descent of Inanna This is a Sumerian story about the goddess Inanna’s journey to the underworld. 4. The Story of Sinuhe This is an ancient Egyptian story about a man who leaves Egypt and later returns. 5. The Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor This is an Egyptian adventure story about a sailor who survives after a shipwreck. These stories show that early civilisations had rich imagination, moral ideas, religious beliefs, and storytelling traditions.

The scale with a heart on one side and a feather on the other represents the Egyptian belief in judgement after death. Ancient Egyptians believed that after death, a person’s heart was weighed against the feather of Ma’at. Ma’at represented truth, justice, and moral order. If the heart was as light as the feather, it meant that the person had lived a good and truthful life. Such a person was allowed to enter the afterlife. This papyrus tells us that early Egyptians strongly believed in life after death, moral judgement, truthfulness, and divine justice. It also shows why they gave so much importance to mummification, burial rituals, and preserving the body for the afterlife.

This papyrus tells us that early Egyptians strongly believed in life after death, moral judgement, truthfulness, and divine justice. It also shows why they gave so much importance to mummification, burial rituals, and preserving the body for the afterlife.

Yes, the River Nile can be located on the map as the long river flowing through Egypt from the south towards the north, finally entering the Mediterranean Sea. The northern part is called Lower Egypt because it is located downstream, near the mouth or delta of the Nile, where the river flows into the Mediterranean Sea. The southern part is called Upper Egypt because it is located upstream, towards the higher land from where the Nile flows northward. So, the names Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt are based on the direction of the river’s flow, not on their position on the map.

The social hierarchy of early Egypt had different classes. At the top was the Pharaoh. He was the ruler of Egypt and was considered very powerful. His daily routine may have included giving orders, meeting officials, taking religious decisions, supervising administration, and attending ceremonies.

Below the Pharaoh were government officials, nobles, and priests. Officials helped in administration, tax collection, record keeping, and managing public works. Priests performed rituals in temples and looked after religious activities. Nobles controlled land and held important positions. Below them were free landholders, artisans, and merchants. Landholders worked on or managed farms. Artisans made objects like pottery, jewellery, tools, cloth, and furniture. Merchants bought and sold goods within Egypt and with other regions. At the bottom were serfs and slaves. They did hard physical work such as farming, carrying loads, building structures, serving households, and working for temples or nobles.

This pyramid shows that Egyptian society was highly organised but unequal, with different rights, duties, and occupations for different groups.

The images tell us that Egyptians used decorated and carefully made daily items. Their fashion and lifestyle included objects such as decorated pottery, sandals, ornaments, and accessories. These items show that Egyptians cared about appearance, comfort, craftsmanship, and social status.

Simple items like ordinary sandals and basic pottery may have been used by common people, farmers, artisans, and workers. More decorated or finely made items were probably used by rich people, nobles, priests, officials, merchants, and members of the royal family.

The clues are the materials, designs, finishing, and decoration. Simple objects were likely used in daily life by common people. But objects with fine designs, better material, artistic decoration, and careful craftsmanship were probably used by higher social classes. So, these images show that Egyptian fashion was connected not only with daily need but also with wealth, class, status, and artistic taste.

Chinese script is called logographic because its characters often represent words or meaningful units. Some early Chinese characters looked like the objects they represented, though modern forms have become more stylised over time. The chapter explains that Chinese oracle symbols were carved on animal bones and tortoise shells and help us understand early Chinese beliefs and ideas.

Examples

1. 日

Sun This character means sun or day. Its older form looked like a round sun with a mark inside. Over time, it became a square-shaped symbol.

2. 月

Moon This character means moon or month. Its older shape looked like a crescent moon. The modern form is simpler but still reminds us of the moon’s shape.

3. 山

Mountain This character means mountain. Its shape looks like three mountain peaks.

4. 口

Mouth This character means mouth. It looks like an open mouth or opening.

These examples show that early Chinese writing developed from picture-like symbols into a more organised writing system.

The main reason for building the Great Wall of China was protection from attacks and raids by nomadic tribes. The chapter tells us that several walls were first built from around 680 BCE onwards and were later joined together to form a stronger defence system. Other possible reasons for building the Great Wall were: 1. To protect agricultural lands and villages The wall helped protect settled farming communities from sudden attacks. 2. To mark boundaries It acted as a boundary between Chinese states and regions controlled by nomadic groups. 3. To control trade and movement The wall helped rulers control who entered and left the empire.

4. To protect trade routes It helped protect traders and caravans, especially in areas connected with long-distance trade. 5. To send signals and warnings Watchtowers on the wall were used to communicate warnings through fire, smoke, or other signals. 6. To show imperial power The wall also showed the strength, unity, and authority of Chinese rulers. For a model or presentation, students can show the wall, watchtowers, soldiers, mountains, trade routes, and nearby villages.

The Silk Route was a network of trade routes that connected China, Central Asia, India, West Asia, and Europe. It was called the Silk Route because silk from China became one of the most important goods traded on this route, especially during the Han dynasty. India was connected with the Silk Route through land routes passing through northwestern India, Central Asia, and the Himalayan region. Indian traders exchanged goods such as cotton textiles, spices, precious stones, beads, ivory, and medicines. India was also connected with China through the spread of Buddhism. Buddhism began in India and later travelled to China through monks, traders, and pilgrims along the Silk Route.

Chinese pilgrims such as Faxian and Xuanzang came to India to visit Buddhist places, study Buddhist texts, and collect manuscripts. Many Buddhist texts were translated into Chinese. In this way, the Silk Route was not only a trade route but also a route for the exchange of religion, ideas, art, and culture.

Life became easier in many ways, but it also brought new challenges. First, farming gave humans a more regular food supply. Earlier, hunter-gatherers had to move from place to place in search of food. After farming, people could grow crops and store grains. Second, farming helped humans live in permanent villages. This led to the development of houses, pottery, weaving, animal domestication, and community life. However, farming also created challenges. Farmers had to worry about droughts, floods, crop failure, pests, and protection of stored grain. So, life became more settled, but also more responsible and organised.

The environment gave early humans many opportunities. Fertile soil, rivers, forests, grasslands, animals, and useful plants helped people begin farming and animal domestication. In river valleys, rivers provided water for irrigation, fertile alluvial soil, fish, transport, and trade routes. For example, early civilisations developed near rivers: the Sindhu– Sarasvatī civilisation near the Sindhu and Sarasvatī rivers, Mesopotamia near the Tigris and Euphrates, Egypt near the Nile, and China near the Huang He and Yangtze rivers. But the environment also created challenges. Rivers could cause floods, destroy crops and houses, and force people to build dams, canals, drainage systems, and reservoirs. Droughts and changing climate could reduce food production. Thus, humans had to cooperate, plan, and develop administration to manage the environment.

Historians divide early human history into different ages to understand changes in tools, technology, lifestyle, and social development. The Stone Age shows the period when humans mainly used stone tools. It includes the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic periods. The Bronze Age shows the use of bronze, growth of cities, trade, writing, and administration. The Iron Age shows the widespread use of iron tools and weapons, which made societies more advanced. This classification tells us that human progress happened gradually. Humans moved from simple stone tools to polished tools, then to metal tools, farming, villages, cities, trade, writing, and organised government.

I wake up early in the morning in my mud-brick house. My family and I go to the fields to check our crops. We use stone tools to dig the soil and remove weeds. Some people look after our goats, sheep, and cattle. Others grind grains, make pottery, or repair tools. In the afternoon, we store grains safely and bring water for the animals. In the evening, we cook food in clay pots and discuss the next day’s work. As a Neolithic farmer, I face many challenges that hunter-gatherers may not face. I have to protect my crops from pests, animals, drought, floods, and disease. I also have to store grains carefully so that they do not rot or get stolen. Unlike hunter-gatherers, I cannot easily move away, because my fields, animals, and house are fixed in one place.

If the Harappan script gets deciphered, historians may learn many new things about the Sindhu– Sarasvatī or Harappan civilisation. They may learn about the language of the Harappans, the names of rulers or officials, their religious beliefs, their laws, their trade records, and their administrative system. They may also find out what was written on seals, pottery, and tablets. Historians may understand whether Harappan seals were used for trade, ownership, official orders, religious symbols, or identification marks. We may also learn more about their contact with Mesopotamia, where the Harappan region was probably known as Meluhha.

So, deciphering the Harappan script would make our understanding of Harappan civilisation much clearer and deeper.

This statement is correct. The major Bronze Age civilisations developed in different regions, but they shared many common features. The Sindhu– Sarasvatī civilisation developed near the Sindhu and Sarasvatī rivers. Mesopotamia developed near the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Egypt developed near the Nile River. China developed near the Huang He and Yangtze rivers. They developed independently, but all of them had some common features. They were located in fertile river valleys. They practised agriculture, developed crafts, used metal tools, built towns or cities, had trade networks, developed social hierarchy, and used some form of writing or record keeping.

For example, Mesopotamia had cuneiform writing, Egypt had hieroglyphic writing, China had oracle bone writing, and the Harappans had their own script, though it has not yet been deciphered. Thus, these civilisations were separate, but they followed similar paths of development because agriculture, rivers, trade, writing, and administration were important everywhere.

Settling near rivers had many advantages. Rivers provided water for drinking, farming, animals, fishing, and transport. They deposited fertile soil, which helped crops grow well. River routes also helped in trade and movement of goods. This is why early civilisations grew near rivers, such as the Nile, Tigris-Euphrates, Sindhu- Sarasvatī, Huang He, and Yangtze. But rivers also created problems. Floods could destroy houses, fields, animals, and stored grains. Sometimes rivers changed course. Too much water or too little water could damage crops. People had to build canals, dams, reservoirs, embankments, and drainage systems.

Therefore, rivers helped civilisations grow, but they also forced people to organise labour, create rules, and develop administration.

The Code of Hammurabi was a collection of laws made during the rule of Hammurabi, the famous Babylonian ruler. It contained rules about family, property, trade, wages, punishment, debt, and social conduct. It was important because it was one of the earliest known written law codes. It helped create a more organised society by clearly stating rules and punishments. It also showed that the king was responsible for maintaining law and order. However, it was not completely fair to all sections of society. Punishments often depended on a person’s social class. Rich and powerful people were usually treated differently from poor people, slaves, and lower social groups. So, while the Code of Hammurabi was important for the development of law, it did not provide equal justice to everyone in the modern sense.

One major innovation I would choose is writing. Writing changed the world permanently because it allowed people to record laws, trade, taxes, stories, religious ideas, events, and knowledge. Before writing, information had to be remembered and passed orally. But after writing, information could be preserved for future generations. For example, cuneiform tablets in Mesopotamia tell us about trade, farming, crafts, myths, epics, and law codes. Egyptian papyrus records also help us understand Egyptian society and beliefs. Writing helped in administration, education, literature, business, and history. Without writing, it would be very difficult to know the details of ancient civilisations.

The Egyptian civilisation had a clear social hierarchy. At the top was the Pharaoh. Below him were government officials, nobles, and priests. Then came free landholders, artisans, and merchants. At the bottom were serfs and slaves. Mesopotamian society also had hierarchy. Kings, priests, priestesses, officials, merchants, craftspeople, farmers, and labourers had different positions. Temples and ziggurats played an important role in social and economic life. Chinese society also became highly stratified. The ruling class, nobles, and aristocrats were at the top, followed by farmers and labourers.

Similarities

All three civilisations had social hierarchy, rulers, priests or religious leaders, officials, farmers, artisans, traders, and labourers. Agriculture was the main occupation in all of them. Religion, festivals, crafts, trade, and administration were important parts of daily life.

Differences

In Egypt, the Pharaoh was extremely powerful and was connected with divine authority. Egypt is also famous for pyramids, mummification, and belief in afterlife. In Mesopotamia, temples called ziggurats were major centres of power and economy. In China, dynasties, bronze ritual vessels, jade objects, oracle bones, and later civil service examinations became important features. Thus, these societies were similar in organisation, but different in beliefs, rulers, architecture, and cultural practices.

12. Activity: Using maps, locate the major rivers and civilisations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, China, and the Sindhu– Sarasvatī Valley. Mark the trade links between them. On a map, mark the following:

Trade links to mark: Mark trade links between Sindhu– Sarasvatī civilisation and Mesopotamia. The Harappan region was probably known as Meluhha in Mesopotamian records. Also mark Dilmun near Bahrain and Magan near Oman, because these places acted as important trade contact points. Goods traded may have included semi-precious stone beads, ivory, timber, gold dust, and copper.

Presentation Topic: Mesopotamian Civilisation

Activity 13 – Mini-presentation: Mesopotamian Civilisation

Introduction: Mesopotamia means “land between two rivers”. It developed between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in West Asia and was one of the earliest city-based civilisations.

Tools and technology: Mesopotamians used copper and bronze tools. These tools improved farming, craft production and trade. Better tools increased productivity and supported the growth of towns and cities.

Writing: The Sumerians developed cuneiform writing around 3300 BCE. It was written on clay tablets with a wedge-shaped stylus. Writing helped record trade, farming, laws, stories, hymns and administration.

Art and craft: Mesopotamians made pottery, textiles, metal objects, seals and decorated boxes. They also made objects showing scenes from daily life. These objects tell us about clothing, occupations, transport, trade and social life.

Architecture: The most famous Mesopotamian structure was the ziggurat, a stepped temple built in cities. It was a religious centre and was also connected with the economy, storage, administration and social life.

Conclusion: Mesopotamia gave the world city-states, writing, organised trade, a temple-centred economy, mathematics, law codes, wheeled carts and sailboats. These innovations influenced later civilisations and helped shape human history.